The Catholic Church in the 13th Century: A Timeline of Key Events
The 13th Century
Introduction
In some respects, the 13th century is thought by historians to be the apogee of the High Middle Ages. The Crusades were in full flow, helping build the sea powers of Venice and Genoa and fuelling the early days of the Reconquista in Spain. The papacy was at the height of its political and financial influence, with figures such as Innocent III wielding considerable religious power, often to the detriment of groups such as the Waldensians and new movements such as the Cathars.
A Century of Faith and Power
The 13th century saw a succession of influential popes, including Innocent III, Gregory IX, and Boniface VIII. These popes played significant roles in shaping the Church and its relationship with secular powers during a period of change and conflict. Pope Gregory IX founded the Papal Inquisition, while Boniface VIII was best known for his battle for supremacy with King Philip IV of France, a battle which he lost and which ultimately led to a decline in papal power by the end of the century.
Monasticism, the rise of university cities across Europe and axial relationships with religious and educational institutions in Persia, Spain and Egypt, resulted in a fruitful flow of advancements in mathematics, logic, philosophy and theology. In Europe, Cambridge and Bologna in particular began to come to prominence. With the publication of treatises by theologians such as Peter Lombard, the scholastic critical model became a touchstone of intellectual argument and ideas. His ideas influenced Church doctors such as Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, and Albertus Magnus.
Scholasticism is a method of theological inquiry that emphasises logical reasoning and the use of dialectic to resolve theological questions. The method led to the development of organised and comprehensive theological systems, often beginning with arguments for the existence of God. The rediscovery and assimilation of Aristotle's works, particularly by Aquinas, led to a more rational and philosophical approach to theology.
Early 13th Century (1200-1227)
1200: Albertus Magnus (1200-1280) is born. He would become a Dominican friar, the teacher of Thomas Aquinas, and a prolific writer on various subjects, including theology and natural science.
1202-1204: The catastrophic Fourth Crusade gets underway. It was supposed to recapture Jerusalem, but instead fatally weakened the Byzantine Empire as the crusading army sacked Constantinople. Heavily reliant on Venice for transportation across the Mediterranean, the Venetians actively encouraged the Crusaders to attack the city in the hope of expanding their dominance of Mediterranean trade.
1205: The Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, dies in Constantinople. Although blind, Dandolo was a prominent leader of the Fourth Crusade and encouraged the sack of Constantinople, partly to eliminate it as a commercial rival of Venice.
1206: Genghis Khan unites the Mongol tribes and establishes the Mongol Empire. Under leaders such as Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan, the Mongols expanded across Asia and into Eastern Europe, creating one of the largest contiguous land empires in history.
1215: The First Baron's War in England breaks out. The barons, led by Robert Fitzwalter, rebelled against the despotic and incompetent rule of King John I.
1215: The Magna Carta was signed. The charter outlined the protection of church rights and the protection of the barons from illegal imprisonment. It put limits on feudal payments and confirmed rights outlined in the Charter of Liberties. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, drafted Magna Carta. In the event, neither side kept to its terms, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Baron's War.
1215: The Fourth Lateran Council, convened by Pope Innocent III, defined key doctrines. The council addressed the sacraments, the role of the laity, the treatment of Jews and heretics, and the organisation of the church. The teachings of the Cathars and Waldensians were condemned. The decree mandating annual confession and the promotion of the doctrine of transubstantiation raised the profile of the council in Catholic history.
1216: Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) dies. Considered one of the most powerful Popes of the Middle Ages, Innocent III asserted papal authority over secular rulers and played a key role in the Fourth Crusade. He greatly extended the scope of the Crusades, directing crusades against Muslim Iberia and the Holy Land as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in southern France.
1216: The Order of Preachers was founded. We know it today as the Dominican Order, founded by the Spanish priest Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221) in France. The order was quickly approved by Pope Honorius III. Several notable theologians have been Dominicans, including St Thomas Aquinas, St Albert the Great, and St Catherine of Siena.
1221: Giovanni di Fidanza (1221-1274), known to history as Bonaventure, is born. He would become a Franciscan bishop, Minister General of the Franciscans, and a cardinal. He is best known as a theologian and philosopher, renowned for his influential writings including The Journey of the Mind into God.
1220: On the feast of Pentecost the first general chapter of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) was held at Bologna, establishing a system of democratic government devoted to poverty and teaching.
1221: St Dominic dies on August 6th in Bologna, Italy.
1223: The Franciscan Order, founded by St Francis of Assisi, received formal papal approval.
1225: Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was born. He would grow up to become one of the most famous doctors of the Church. His stature as an intellectual helped to soften the image of the Dominicans. He is celebrated for his theology and philosophical works and took the scholastic method to a new level.
1226: Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone (c.1181-1226), better known as Francis of Assisi, dies. Canonised in 1228 by Pope Gregory IX, he is one of the most beloved of saints and alongside St Catherine of Siena is the patron saint of Italy.
1227: Pope Honorius III (1216-1227) dies. Best known for approving the founding of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, Pope Honorius III continued the reforms instigated by Pope Innocent III.
1227: Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) succeeds Honorius III. Pope Gregory IX is known for two important developments. First, he ordered the first complete collection of papal decretals, called the Corpus Iuris Canonici, which remained a foundation of ecclesiastic law until 1918. Second, he established the Papal Inquisition in 1233.
Mid-Century Events (1250-1277)
1250: The Mamluk Sultanate is founded in Egypt.
1253: Robert Grosseteste (c.1175-1253), the English statesman, theologian, and scientist, known for his work on optics and his influence on the development of English theology, dies.
1258: The Mongol conquest of Baghdad, effectively ending the Abbasid Caliphate.
1259: Treaty of Paris is signed between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England.
1265: Simon de Montfort convenes the first English Parliament.
1271-1295: Marco Polo travels to China, documenting his experiences.
1274: The Second Council of Lyons, aiming to reconcile the Eastern and Western churches, but ultimately unsuccessful.
1277: The Condemnation of 1277. The Bishop of Paris, Etienne Tempier, issued a treatise attacking some 219 propositions stemming from Aristotelian thought that was influencing theological debate at the University of Paris. Some interpretations of Aristotle's teaching, particularly on natural causes and determinism, clashed with Christian teachings on free will, divine creation, and the possibility of miracles. The condemnation marked a turning point in scholastic philosophy, encouraging a move away from strict adherence to Aristotelian principles.
Late Century Events (1284-1291)
1284: Siger of Brabant (c.1240-1284) dies. A controversial figure associated with the Radical Aristotelianism movement, who challenged some traditional theological doctrines. Radical Aristotelianism, often associated with Averroism, was a philosophical movement in the 13th and 14th centuries that emphasised the use of reason and Aristotle's philosophy, sometimes leading to conclusions that conflicted with Christian doctrine.
1285: William of Ockham (1285-1347) is born. Although William is best known largely for his contributions to logic and philosophy, he also had a significant impact on theological thought in the late Middle Ages.
1291: The last Crusader stronghold in the Holy Land falls, marking the end of the Crusades.